Question
The Jamaican-born Canadian Ben Johnson is infamously remembered as the 100m sprinter who tested positive at the Seoul Olympics of 1988. Some critics have suggested that the American Carl Lewis, Johnson’s major rival, also tested positive during his career but this was ‘covered up’. In your view, is there a case against Lewis? Investigate and explain why.
Introduction
The track and field 100m final at the 1988 Seoul Olympics would be dubbed “the dirtiest race in history” (Mackay 2003). Five of the eight competitors would go on to fail drug tests throughout their careers and public opinion of athletes from that period is shaped heavily by the events of one race (Honeyball 2004). Canadian world champion, Ben Johnson, broke the world record with a time of 9.79 seconds and won the race comfortably, defeating his fierce American rival, Carl Lewis (9.79* 2012; Hall & Moore 2012; Honeyball 2004; Mackay 2003). Only days later, Johnson had failed a drug test that would make him the villain of the Olympics and give Lewis, the all-America likeable hero, the gold which many felt he deserved (Hall & Moore 2012). However, in order to remain competitive against a field of cheating athletes, critics have long suspected that Lewis had been using performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) too.
This essay will analyse the revelations of systematic doping by a vast array of competitors in athletics (Fitch 2008), why Lewis and other athletes felt they needed to dope, how inadvertent Lewis’ doping really was and how sinister the United States Olympic Committee’s (USOC) cover up of many positive tests had been. This essay will argue that Lewis, with the assistance of USOC, systematically deceived the public, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and rivals by covering up rife abuse of banned substances. It will conclude that USOC and Lewis deliberately cheated and deceived in order to win and then attempt to save face.
Why dope?
Athletes take a variety of PEDs in order to get an edge over their competitors (Fitch 2008; Gill et al. 2000; Hartgens & Kuipers 2004; Jones 2008; Wood & Stanton 2012). Scott Gilpatric (2010) states: “The extent of cheating is determined by the payoffs at stake in the contest”. When the incentives are great, as in the case of world records, sponsorship money and Olympic glory, there is far more reason to obtain an illegal or unfair advantage, especially if the subject doesn’t think they’ll get caught (Gilpatric 2010; Krakel 2006). Berning, Adams & Stamford (2004) argue that because doping is illegal and hard data is hard to come by, the anecdotal suggestions that up to 90 per cent of athletes use PEDs must be treated, at the very least, as plausible.
One such way in which an athlete can dope is through the use of stimulants (Gill et al. 2000; Jones 2008). As Jones states:
The mode of action of these stimulants centres on their ability to cause persistence of catecholamine neurotransmitters… Stimulants are able to influence the activity of neuronal control pathways in the central (and peripheral) nervous system. (2008, p. 109)
By doing this, stimulants put the nervous system in a state of overdrive (Jones 2008) and enable athletes to perform at a higher intensity than they would be able to do so otherwise (Gill et al. 2000).
Another method which athletes use to cheat is through the use of anabolic steroids (Bigger faster stronger* 2008; Hall & Moore 2012; Honeyball 2004; Mackay 2003; Wood & Stanton 2012). Anabolic steroids are man-made, synthetic versions of the naturally occurring male hormone testosterone (Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). They improve performance by enabling an athlete to train at a higher intensity and more frequently, leading to larger gains in muscle, strength and speed output (Fitch 2008; Hartgens & Kuipers 2004; Wood & Stanton 2012).
Former world champion and world record holder, Ben Johnson, who was found to have taken the banned anabolic steroid Stanozolol (Bigger stronger faster* 2009; Ryan 2013), stated: “Why should I train hard doing it clean and then these other guys are not clean. Fair is fair” (9.79* 2012). Johnson makes no apologies for cheating and openly admits he took drugs to improve his performance (9.79* 2012; Ryan 2013). Johnson sums up to environment at the time: “He was the doctor and he said if you don’t take it, you won’t make it” (9.79* 2012). Johnson believed every other athlete he was competing against was taking PEDs and that the playing field would only be even if he took them too (9.79* 2012; Bigger stronger faster* 2008; Ryan 2013).
Johnson shot to fame by beating Olympic champion Carl Lewis for the first time in 1985 and continued to beat him regularly right up until the Seoul games in 1988 (9.79* 2012). Lewis, who critics say was driven by his very self-centred, arrogant and egotistical demeanor, became incensed and a bitter rivalry brewed (9.79* 2012). Lewis was outspoken about rival athletes who he believed were cheating and stated as much in many press conferences and interviews (9.79* 2012). As Denham (2004) argues, Lewis’ arrogant declaration as the drug-free, pure, all-American athlete, while berating foreign competitors, set him up to look inadequate, particularly if he didn’t win. Lewis, along with many other athletes in similar positions, was in a position where he saw other athletes cheating and not being caught despite widespread rumours and the attention he tried to bring towards them. He decided he could get away with it too and would use PEDs to keep up with the competition.
Revelation of documents implicating Lewis in doping
Johnson was stripped of his Olympic gold only days following the Seoul final and was given a two year ban from the sport following his positive drug test (9.79* 2012; Honeyball 2004). Lewis was crowned Olympic champion having come second and basked in the glory of what he claimed to be winning while clean, among a field of cheats (9.79* 2012; Hall & Moore 2012; Honeyball 2004; Mackay 2003). Allegations were raised by Johnson that his test had been sabotaged by a member of Lewis’ entourage and an investigation was launched, but no evidence could be brought forward to support the claims (Isaac 2012). Johnson would eventually admit to doping and be made, by and large, the scapegoat for doping in athletics (Isaac 2012; Mackay 2003).
By exposing a vast array of evidence, Dr. Wade Exum, a former US anti-doping employee, threw Lewis’ claims of winning fairly into disrepute (‘Lewis a drug cheat? Documents suggest cover up’ 2003). In 2003 he blew the whistle and revealed a large collection of documents that implicated Lewis, among others, in a range of doping violations, many of which were committed in the lead up to the 1988 Seoul Olympics (Honeyball 2004; ‘Lewis a drug cheat? Documents suggest cover up’ 2003; Magnay 2003). Among the documents was a letter addressed directly to Lewis in which he was informed that he’d tested positive to banned substances and would not be permitted to participate in the Seoul Olympics. In a letter addressed to Lewis, former executive director of USOC Baaron Pittenger stated:
I must confirm that the analysis for your specimen B was positive for pseudoephedrine, ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine, IOC banned stimulants. By policy of the USOC this finding is cause for disqualification from Olympic team for the 1988 summer games in Seoul, Korea. (Bigger stronger faster* 2008)
Lewis dismissed his positive test as ‘inadvertent use’ from a medication he’d taken for a cold (Bigger stronger faster* 2008). Despite Lewis’ claim that he’d taken it by mistake, some critics argue this would have been impossible as all the athletes were bombarded with the banned substances list and know what they can and can’t take (Bigger stronger faster* 2008). Lewis avoided the reality of his positive drug test and did not accept that he’d competed and won while an illegal substance was in his system. It is evident that then was the time Lewis crossed the line from innocent athlete trying his best to beat the cheaters and joined them by taking PEDs.
Evidence for Lewis’ doping
While many of Lewis’ rivals, including Johnson, had long suspected Lewis had used PEDs during his career, documented evidence of a positive test was what they needed to substantiate their claims (Ryan 2013). Johnson attempted to bait Lewis into a confession by stating that: “He has to live with that conscience and that conscience is a lie and he knows that” (Ryan 2013). Eventually it became clear accusing Lewis of doping, and hoping he’d come clean on his own, did not work. However, when Dr. Exum, who Magnay (2003) identifies as the crucial cog that unravelled the secrets behind Lewis’ doping, came forward with evidence, the lies began to unravel.
Dr. Exum’s leaked documents from USOC were the most damning evidence put forward to implicate Lewis in the use of PEDs (‘Lewis a drug cheat? Documents suggest cover-up’ 2003). Further support for claims of systematic doping come from Dr. Robert Voy, another former USOC employee, who supported Dr. Exum’s claims in a lawsuit he filed against his former employers (Jones 2009). Dr. Voy submitted an affidavit for Dr. Exum’s case that stated:
Based on my experience and expertise, I believe that the USOC and/or the various NGBs (national governing bodies) have covered up evidence of American Olympic level athletes testing positive for banned performance enhancing drugs. (cited by Jones 2009)
In 2003 Lewis finally admitted that he’d had positive tests, but defended himself by claiming “the climate was different then” (Ryan 2013). Whether he meant that USOC were happy to let him off because they were giving him the PEDs to help him win or that they were lenient to athletes accidentally and inadvertently taking things they weren’t supposed to raises interesting questions. It appears Lewis’ slip of the tongue further supported claims he’d been let off despite undeniable and unavoidable evidence he’d tested positive when no allowance should have been made.
Cover up of Lewis doping
In the lead up to the 1988 Seoul Olympic games, all testing for PEDs was undertaken by each country’s own sporting bodies (Honeyball 2004; ‘Lewis a drug cheat? Documents suggest cover up 2003; Magnay 2003). As Dr. Exum argued in an ESPN (n.d.) documentary, these organisations were not independent and the potential for corrupt practices was great. Little to no scrutiny was placed upon how rigorous their testing practices were and how severe any penalties they handed down were to be (Jones 2009; Wilson 2000). Dr. Exum argues:
The words that you read in the paper is that it’s an independent agency. I would invite you to look into the backgrounds of all of those who are associated with that agency right now. And I defy you to find any independence. (cited by ESPN n.d.)
American athletes were exposed to non-punitive testing throughout the early 80s and some critics argue this was used to help educate athletes on how to get away with using PEDs (Bigger stronger faster 2008; ‘USOC had non-punitive drug tests’ 1989). According The Telegraph (1989), 75 athletes tested positive during this period, but none were sanctioned. Dr. Exum suggests: “The world perception is that the USOC does not run a doping control program, they run a controlled doping program” (cited by ESPN n.d.). He argues this period gave athletes an understanding of what drugs they could use, when they could use them and how to avoid positive tests.
In the two year lead up to the Sydney Olympics in 2000, USA Track and Field was accused of suppressing positive tests for 15 athletes (Wilson 2000). According to WADA head Dick Pound, many people in the know suspected USOC were covering up positive tests (‘Lewis a drug cheat? Documents suggest cover-up’ 2003). The precedent is clear and the mounting evidence suggests little doubt that USOC was unafraid of cheating the system to allow their best athletes to dope and get away with it. Johnson accuses: “[Lewis] tested positive several times but he’s been protected… because he’s American” (cited by Ryan 2013). USOC held too much power and were free from scrutiny to undertake testing for PEDs in which ever manner they saw fit.
Lewis himself added flames to the fire when another slip of the tongue appeared to self-implicate: “There were hundreds of people getting off… everyone was treated the same” (cited in Mackay 2003). While Lewis hasn’t ever admitted to knowingly taking PEDs and being part of an organised and systematic program that covered-up positive tests, he struggled to dismiss such suggestions convincingly.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Johnson’s failed drug test made him the villain of the Seoul Olympics in 1988 and he was, perhaps unfairly, heavily lambasted and scapegoated by the sporting public. Giving Lewis the gold appeared fitting at the time (Hall & Moore 2012). However, it is evident that there was more to the story and further investigation has unravelled a concerning culture of PED usage in order to remain competitive.
Through the analysis and investigation of the incentives for Lewis and other athletes to cheat, the revelations of documents that accuse USOC of systematic doping in athletics (Fitch 2008), the deliberate use of PED by Lewis’ and USOC’s obvious cover up of varying doping violations by many of its athletes, this essay has delved into the truth behind the story purported by Lewis and USOC. That Lewis, with the assistance of USOC, systematically deceived the public, the IOC and rivals is now evident. To this day, Lewis remains adamant that he is innocent, has no case to answer or that any doping violation brought against him is pety, insignificant or slanderous.
Lewis asks the public: “Who cares I failed drug test?” (cited in Mackay 2003). I contend that sponsors, the IOC, rival competitors who were robbed of a fair contest and the public all have a right to both cares about Lewis’ doping and knowledge of the truth. There is no doubt that Lewis and USOC has a severe case to answer as they deliberately cheated, deceived and lied their way to victory.
References
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